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| History and status |
| History of masturbation · Onan Religious views |
Among the world's religions, views on masturbation vary widely. Some religions view it as a spiritually detrimental practice, some see it as not spiritually detrimental and others take a situational view. Among these latter religions, some view masturbation as allowable if used as a means towards sexual self-control, or as part of healthy self-exploration, but disallow it if it is done with wrong motives or as an addiction.
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The most used formulation of Buddhist ethics are the Five Precepts and the Eightfold Path, which say that one should follow the right view towards pleasures. These precepts take the form of voluntary, personal undertakings, not divine mandate or instruction. The third of the Five Precepts is "To refrain from committing sexual misconduct.[1]". However, the "sexual misconduct" is such a broad term, and is subjected to interpretation relative to the social norms of the followers. In fact, Buddhism in its fundamental form, does not define what is right and what is wrong in absolute terms for lay followers. Therefore the interpretation of what kinds of sexual activity is acceptable for a layperson is varied. It seems reasonable to conclude that according to the middle path sexual conduct and desire is okay if it is not used to harm. We do have sexual desires and since buddhism is not asceticism, satisfying them through masturbation can be acceptable.
It can also be argued that even for a layperson, excessive focus on sexual pleasure by any means can be said to be not following the middle path. .
In general, the moral code of conduct of Chinese Buddhism is stricter regarding the sexual practices of lay Buddhists and generally opposes masturbation, viewing it as a form of sexual misconduct. This is especially so for Upāsaka and Upāsikā who practise Eight Precepts on Uposatha days, leading a more ascetic lifestyle that does not allow for masturbation. Advocates of stricter precepts against sexual misconduct point to references from the Upasakasila Sutra 《優婆塞戒經》, particularly as stated "若於非時、非處、非女、處女、他婦、若屬自身，是名邪淫。" -if sex is practised under the inappropriate times (times not allowed by precepts) , inappropriate place (places not allowed by precepts), with non-female, with virgin, with a married wife, if sex relates to self-body, it is known as sexual misconduct. The "sex relates to self-body 屬自身" generally refers to masturbation and is defined under the confinement of precepts of no sexual misconduct for Upāsaka and Upāsikā in Chinese Buddhism. Advocates of such stricter precepts have argued for the need for purity of the mind and often cited bad karmic effect as a result of masturbation, as it can lead to further sexual misconduct including sex addiction, usage of pornography, buying sex, adultery, molestation, rape etc.
On the matter of masturbation, the Hebrew and Christian Bibles are silent, neither denouncing nor encouraging the practice. The biblical story of Onan is traditionally linked to referring to masturbation and condemnation thereof, but the act described by this story is coitus interruptus, not masturbation.[2] There is no explicit claim in the Bible that masturbation would be sinful[3][4], however Leviticus chapter 15 in the Law of Moses states that any male having a "flow" for any reason, is ceremonially defiled for seven days.
The official Catholic Church still teaches that "Masturbation constitutes a grave moral disorder" and that "both the Magisterium of the Church—in the course of a constant tradition—and the moral sense of the faithful have declared without hesitation that masturbation is an intrinsically and seriously disordered act."[5]
Although "it is said that psychology and sociology show that [masturbation] is a normal phenomenon of sexual development, especially among the young," this does not change the fact that it "is an intrinsically and seriously disordered act" and "that, whatever the motive for acting this way, the deliberate use of the sexual faculty outside normal conjugal relations essentially contradicts the finality of the faculty. For it lacks the sexual relationship called for by the moral order, namely the relationship which realizes 'the full sense of mutual self-giving and human procreation in the context of true love.'"[5]
This is because the deliberate use of the sexual faculty outside of marriage is, in the opinion of the Church, contrary to its primary purpose of procreation and unification of the husband and wife within the sacrament of marriage.[6] In addition, the Church teaches that all other sexual activity—including masturbation, homosexual acts, acts of sodomy, all sex outside of or before marriage (fornication), and the use of any form of contraception or birth control—is gravely disordered,[5] as it frustrates the natural order, purpose, and ends of sexuality.[7] Natural family planning is permitted, being not a form of artificial contraception.[8] To form an equitable judgment about the subjects' moral responsibility and to guide pastoral action, one must take into account the affective immaturity, force of acquired habit, conditions of anxiety or other psychological or social factors that lessen, if not even reduce to a minimum, moral culpability.[9]
The traditional view of masturbation has been consistent for almost all of the Catholic Church's 2,000-year history.[10] Early Catholic theologians universally condemned both masturbation and contraception as sinful. One such example is Clement of Alexandria, considered a saint and a Church Father, who said of masturbation, "Because of its divine institution for the propagation of man, the seed is not to be vainly ejaculated, nor is it to be damaged, nor is it to be wasted.".[11]
St. Thomas Aquinas, one of the most prominent Doctors of the Roman Catholic Church, wrote that masturbation, an "unnatural vice" which is a species of lust in the same category as bestiality and sodomy, "by procuring pollution [i.e., ejaculation apart from intercourse], without any copulation, for the sake of venereal pleasure [...] pertains to the sin of 'uncleanness' which some call 'effeminacy' [Latin: mollitiem, lit. 'softness, unmanliness']."[12]
However, after a study commissioned by the Catholic Theological Society of America in 1972,[13] a number of dissident Catholic theologians have come to hold that an act of masturbation should not be judged as an objective moral evil, but assessed within the life context of the person involved. Others, among them John Wijngaards, maintain that masturbation is often no sin at all, and hardly ever a serious one."[14].
The Eastern Orthodox Church or Orthodox Christian Church views sexuality as a gift from God that finds its fulfillment in the marital relationship, and therefore the misuse of the gift of human sexuality is sinful. Because the act of masturbation is self-directed, and by its nature is incapable of expressing love and concern for another person, it is viewed as a distortion of the use of the gift of sexuality. This is especially apparent when masturbation becomes an addiction. In the least, the practice of self-pleasure is viewed as not honoring the purpose of God's gift of sexuality.[15]
From the bishops and theologians of the early Christian church, Saint John Chrysostom and Saint Basil the Great (330 AD) to modern-day Orthodox Christian theologians, such as Stanley Harakas, Alexander Schmemann and Thomas Hopko, the Orthodox teaching on sexual morality remains consistent.
The sexual sins of fornication, adultery, masturbation and cyber sex, as well as hatred, jealousy, drunkenness and other sins are considered to be sins of the heart as much as the body. It is thought that turning away from sexual sin is turning away from self indulgence for the purpose of self gratification. Instead of turning to the desires of the flesh, the Orthodox Christian claims to turn to the Holy Spirit, whose fruit is believed to be love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control.[16]
Theologians toward the middle of the 20th century began revising previous teachings, and some today even take pro-masturbation viewpoints. Most conservative denominations view it as an act of self-indulgence and a sin of the flesh and believe that the practice is principally considered a sin because of its invitation to lust.[17] Those who view it within the range of allowable sexual behavior encourage it as guard against adultery, pre-marital sex, or other forms of non-allowable sexual behavior, and as a method of balancing differing libidos between spouses.[18]
Ellen G. White, one of the founders of the Seventh-day Adventist Church, in the mid-19th century claimed to have spiritual visions from God that gave her guidance on the Christian life. She warned against overly-stimulating foods, sex, and masturbation, which she referred to as "solitary vice." She warned her followers of her visions of disfigured humans and the consequences of masturbation not only destroying one's life, but preventing access to Heaven when Jesus comes in the first resurrection. She made claims that masturbation was the cause of many sicknesses in adults from cancer to lung disease. White even stated that masturbation claimed many sinners' lives prematurely. She believed that one's diet had a direct correlation with one's urge to masturbate. She claimed that a healthy diet consisting of fruits, vegetables, wheat breads, and water would lead to a diminished urge to masturbate and thus would lead to a healthier and more fulfilling life. To ultimately produce a guide for future generations she claimed solitary vice was the cause of hereditary insanity, cancer, and other deadly diseases; clearly appealing to parents to protect their children by not engaging in solitary vice.[19]
The U.S. denomination the United Church of Christ uses a sexuality curriculum Our Whole Lives, developed jointly with the Unitarian Universalists, openly discusses masturbation as a positive expression of sexuality.
The German united and lutheran churches in Evangelical Church in Germany openly suppose masturbation as a positive expression of sexuality.
Lutheran churches in Denmark (Church of Denmark), Sweden (Church of Sweden), Norway (Church of Norway), Finland (Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland) and Iceland (Church of Iceland) openly suppose masturbation as a positive expression of sexuality.
Spencer W. Kimball, the twelfth President of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints strongly urged the Saints (Mormons) to abandon the habit before going on a mission, receiving the holy priesthood, or going into the temple for blessings. He taught that masturbation indicated "slavery to the flesh, not the mastery of it and the growth toward godhood which is the object of our mortal life".[20] “Masturbation … is not approved of the Lord nor of His Church, regardless of what may be said by others whose ‘norms’ are lower. Latter-day Saints are urged to avoid this practice” (President Kimball Speaks Out [Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Co., 1981], p. 10).[21]
The Jehovah's Witnesses teach that masturbation is a habit that is a "form of uncleanness", one that "fosters attitudes that can be mentally corrupting".[22]
According to Hinduism, life begins at the Brahmacharya or "student" stage, in which they are directed to chastely advance themselves educationally and spiritually to prepare themselves for a life of furthering their dharma (societal, occupational, parental, etc. duties) and karma (right earthly actions); only once they reach the Grihastya or "householder" stage can they seek kama (physical pleasure) and artha (worldly achievement, material prosperity) through their vocations. Sexual pleasure is part of kama, one of the four goals of life. On the matter of masturbation, Hindu scriptures are silent, neither denouncing nor encouraging the practice.
The Hindu treatise on sex Kama Sutra (4th to 6th centuries AD) does not condemn masturbation at all and moreover explains in detail the best procedure to masturbate; "Churn your instrument with a lion's pounce: sit with legs stretched out at right angles to one another, propping yourself up with two hands planted on the ground between in them, and it between your arms".[23]
However, sexual purity/discipline (Brahmacharya) is one of the foundations of Hinduism and masturbation is one of the impediments to sexual purity during Brahmacharya. The word brahmacharya tends to take on a connotation of disciplining the use of and preserving sexual energy and is also understood broadly in yoga as "sexual continence," which can be understood as being applicable as appropriate in different contexts (e.g. faith in marriage, celibacy for spiritual aspirants etc), in more extreme terms (complete celibacy full stop) or in more specific terms in relation to preserving and sublimating male sexual energy rather than losing it through ejaculation.
In Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, Brahmacharya is one of the 5 Yamas, the foundational commitments for the practice of yoga and the end-result or fruit of Brahmacharya practised to perfection is unbounded energy or vitality.
Many yogic techniques, such as meditation and asanas (e.g. shirsasana) can help one to achieve Brahmacharya interpreted as celibacy or strict control of sexual desires.
Many conservative Hindus see masturbation as impure and addictive, while seeing it as a distraction from the goal of self-realization and the pursuit of their vocations. Brahmacharya, which is an essential factor for religious advancement in Hinduism, condemns masturbation and illicit sex life.
Many books have been written on the subject of Brahmacarya by famous Hindu scholars like Swami Sivananda,[24] Asaram Bapu,[25] Sivaya Subramuniyaswami,[26] Sri Vidyaprakasananda Giri, Stephen Knapp,[27] etc.
Masturbation (istimna [استمناء] in Arabic) is forbidden in the Qur'an and in the Sunni Sahih hadith. It is frowned upon by some scholars, who maintain that it should only be done if one fears of committing illicit sex (fornication or adultery); even then alternatives such as getting married or fasting are preferred, as suggested in hadith.
Istimna
Scholars of Islam do not generally approve of masturbation, except in extenuating circumstances. There is a statement in Quran "And those who guard their chastity, Except from their wives for then, they are free from blame; But whoever seeks beyond that, then those are transgressors." (23:5-7)
In Islam, sexual engagement outside of marriage is a major sin, which causes the doer to be punished in this life and in the afterlife (Qiyama). Yet if one's desire is so overwhelming one might perform a greater wrong by having sex outside marriage, masturbation becomes permissible as a necessity but in that case it will be like eating the flesh of a pig to survive from major hunger or starvation when no other food is available. So Quran says "And those who are not married should try to live in chastity, until God enriches them with His Grace" (Qur'an, 24:33)
Masturbation, like any form of sex in which seminal or vaginal fluids have been released, breaks one's fast if performed during the daylight hours and requires a major ablution if any seminal or vaginal fluids were released.
According to Sheikh Hamed Al-Ali: "Masturbation during the daytime of Ramadan breaks the fast, based on the Hadith that a fasting Muslim gives up eating, drinking, and sexual desire for the sake of Allah. Since masturbation is a kind of sexual desire, a fasting Muslim must avoid it. Therefore, masturbation invalidates the fast as does food and as it is one of the sins that if someone does it he or she would be violating the sanctity of this month."
Masturbation is forbidden altogether in the Shi'a sect. The Qur'an says, "The believers are... those who protect their sexual organs except from their spouses... Therefore, whosoever seeks more beyond that [in sexual gratification], then they are the transgressors." (23:5-6) [28]
The four Sunni schools of jurisprudence (known as Madhaahib - the Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali schools of Fiqh) have differing stances on the issue. Some see it forbidden in certain cases (i.e. if it leads a man/woman to ignore their spouse sexually) but recommended it when they see it as a lesser evil to illicit sex. It is generally prohibited according to the Hanafi and Hanbali Mazhabs, unless one fears adultery or fornication, or is under the desire pressure, in which case, it is permissible to seek a relief through masturbation. It is prohibited all the time according to the Maliki and Shafi`i Mazhabs.[29]
The Talmud forbids male masturbation, as it leads to unnecessary spilling of semen, or the impure thoughts of women other than the man's lawful wife. This prohibition is derived from the Biblical narrative of Onan (Talmud Niddah 13a). The Talmud (ibid) likens the act to murder and idolatry. The wrath displayed by God toward Onan was invoked not through the act of spilling semen, but through disobedience to God's command for Onan to impregnate his brother's widow (see the story in Genesis 38:8-10). Others consider the death sentence excessive for failure to properly follow the laws of Levirate marriage — the Biblical punishment for refusing a Levirate marriage was to be spit on, in public, by the woman who was refused. Because Onan's punishment was so much more severe, they argue that the spilling of semen was the relevant offense. Onan was not masturbating, but practising birth control by withdrawal.
According to the Kitzur Shulchan Aruch, "It is forbidden to discharge semen in vain. This is a graver sin than any other in the Torah".[30] However, Beis Shmuel expounds that this is not literal, but rather serves to frighten man into avoiding the sin.[31]
There is disagreement among the poskim, decisors of Jewish law, whether masturbation is an acceptable way of procuring semen for artificial insemination or in vitro fertilisation.[32]
Judaism in general neither prohibits nor discourages female masturbation, although some authorities consider female masturbation as necessarily involving "impure thoughts".[33]
Rabbis from the Progressive movements (i.e., the Reform and Reconstructionist movements) have come to more liberal conclusions. Reconstructionist Rabbi Alexis Roberts maintains that masturbation is "harmless, natural and healthy. It may provide release and pleasure, as well as self-knowledge that is useful for pleasurable sex with a partner. It may make it easier for young people to have sexual release in the years when they are too young for a mature, committed, loving relationship."[34] Reform Rabbi Jonathan Stein, in a proposed schema for normative Reform evaluation of different sexual activities, proposed that masturbation be considered "mutar", a term generally translated as "permissible", but which he renders as "tolerable".[35] Rabbi Walter Jacob, writing on behalf of the Reform responsa committee, asserts, "Although the statements of tradition are very clear, we would take a different view of masturbation, in the light of current psychological thought. Masturbation should be discouraged, but we would not consider it harmful or sinful."[36]
Sperm in vain (or Semen in vain or Seed in vain; Hebrew: זרע לבטלה, pronounced: Zera Levatala) is a Talmudic term and concept that refers to any sexual act in which a male's sperm is consciously "wasted",[37] whether because she is pregnant, infertile, or elderly. This is proper for the purpose of fulfilling the "Onah" Mitzvah-commandment, the husband's marital obligations.
"But why all these precautions? — Because otherwise one might emit semen in vain, and R. Johanan stated: Whosoever emits semen in vain deserves death, for it is said in Scripture."
—Babylon Talmud, Tractate Niddah, p. 13a
Prior to the 20th century, it was a Jewish term usually (but not only) referring to masturbation. In Shulchan Aruch, on "Yoreh Deah", it is stated that wasting sperm is considered to be a sin greater than any sin in the Torah.
Homosexual intercourse is also considered an act of spilling semen in vain; as for masturbation, despite not having been explicitly prohibited in the Torah, the Halkha and the Oral Torah views masturbation as an Halakhaic prohibition and a great sin. Even marital sexual acts in which the semen is not aimed at the vagina (and should it be spilled), is considered an act of seed in vain.
The Halakhic attitude towards a female masturbation is found in the opinions of the Ben Ish Chai[38], who says that it is wrong because it creates evil forces (Kelipos), and Rabbi Moshe Feinstein,[39] who forbids it because it involves indulging in sexual fantasy about men, which falls under the prohibition of forbidden thoughts, which are forbidden for women as well. However, it does not carry the severity of male masturbation, because it does not involve the release of seed.
In modern days, the Halakhic question on whether taking a male sperm for the purpose of medical examinations or insemination is debated among the authorities.
Leviticus chapter 15 in the Law of Moses states that any male having a "flow" is ceremonially defiled, he must cleanse himself with water, and then in the evening begin to count a period of seven days (v. 13), after which he must wash in water again, then bring two pigeons or doves to the priests on the 8th day who will make the sacrifice for him. This "flow" refers to ejaculation of semen (verse 32), whether through masturbation or nocturnal emission. However, verse 3 states that he is rendered unclean even if the flow is "blocked", i.e. even if he stops himself short of ejaculation.
Other than this 7-day ceremonial defilement (which is actually quite similar to the Taoist concept of "diminished Qi" as detailed below), there are no consequences or punishments specified for masturbation or mere ejaculation to be found in Mosaic Law. However, the Temple Scroll, used by the sect responsible for the Dead Sea Scrolls, states that a man may not enter the holy grounds of the Future Temple in the New Jerusalem for a period of seven days after ejaculating.
Some teachers and practitioners of Traditional Chinese medicine, Taoist meditative and martial arts say that masturbation can cause a lowered energy level in men. They say that ejaculation in this way reduces "origin qi" from dantian, the energy center located in the lower abdomen. Some maintain that sex with a partner does not do this because the partners replenish each other's qi. Some practitioners therefore say that males should not practice martial arts for at least 48 hours after masturbation while others prescribe up to six months, because the loss of Origin Qi does not allow new qi to be created for this kind of time.
Taoists strongly discouraged female masturbation. Women were encouraged to practice massaging techniques upon themselves, but were also instructed to avoid thinking sexual thoughts if experiencing a feeling of pleasure. Otherwise, the woman's "labia will open wide and the sexual secretions will flow." If this happened, the woman would lose part of her life force, and this could bring illness and shortened life.[40]
The Unitarian Universalist Association and other Unitarian and Universalist bodies embrace a sexual ethic which affirms a wide range of activities by consenting adults, including masturbation. The sexuality curricula Our Whole Lives, developed jointly with the United Church of Christ, openly discusses the topic as a positive expression of sexuality.
Wicca, like other religions, has adherents with a spectrum of views ranging from conservative to liberal. Wicca is generally undogmatic, and nothing in Wiccan philosophy prohibits masturbation. On the contrary, Wiccan ethics, summed up in the Wiccan Rede "An it harm none, do as thou wilt", are interpreted by many as endorsing responsible sexual activity of all varieties. This is reinforced in the Charge of the Goddess, a key piece of Wiccan literature, in which the Goddess says, "all acts of love and pleasure are my rituals".[41]
Voluptuousness [Latin: Mollities, lit. 'softness, unmanliness,' another word for 'masturbation'], sodomy, and bestiality are sins of the same ultimate species
ce qu'une n'est pas licite: "masturbatio directe procurata ut obtineatur sperma"
("this is not lawful: 'masturbation directly procured to obtain sperm'")